6. Enums and Pattern Matching

Overview

• Enums allow a value to be one of several predefined variants.
• Pattern Matching allows checking a value against patterns and executing code based on the match.

Defining an Enum

Enums are a way of saying that a value is one of a possible set of values.

enum IpAddrKind {
    V4,
    V6,
}

let four = IpAddrKind::V4;
let six = IpAddrKind::V6;

Enums can have multiple variants of the same type.

Using Enums with Structs

We can define enums that hold data.

fn main() {
enum IpAddrKind {
    V4,
    V6,
}

struct IpAddr {
    kind: IpAddrKind,
    address: String,
}

let home = IpAddr {
    kind: IpAddrKind::V4,
    address: String::from("127.0.0.1"),
};

let loopback = IpAddr {
    kind: IpAddrKind::V6,
    address: String::from("::1"),
};
}

Enums with Data Inside Variants

Enums can hold data in their variants.

We avoid needing a struct:

fn main() {    
enum IpAddr {
    V4(String),
    V6(String),
}

let home = IpAddr::V4(String::from("127.0.0.1"));

let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1"));
}

• Each variant can hold different types of data.

• Variants are functions that constructs an instance of the enum.

Enums vs. Structs

	enums	structs
type	multiple	same
method	yes	yes
functions	“variant”	associated

Enums can hold complex data

Enums with other enums or structs:

enum IpAddr {
    V4(Ipv4Addr),
    V6(Ipv6Addr),
}

Enums with different types

enum Message {
    Quit, // has no data
    Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, // named fields like a struct
    Write(String), // A string
    ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), // Multiple i32 values
}

Methods in Enums

We can add methods to enums:

impl Message {
    fn call(&self) {
        // method body
    }
}

let m = Message::Write(String::from("hello"));
m.call();

The Option Enum

Rust doesn’t have null.

Instead, it uses the Option<T> enum to represent a value that may or may not be present.

enum Option<T> {
    None,
    Some(T),
}

This is used when a value might be missing or absent.

Using Option Enum

fn main() {
let some_number = Some(5);
let some_char = Some('e');

let absent_number: Option<i32> = None;
}

The match Control Flow Construct

The match expression in Rust checks values against patterns, running code based on the match:

enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter,
}

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => 1,
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter => 25,
    }
}

Matching with Values and Binding

We can bind values inside match arms, which is how we extract values from enum variants:

#[derive(Debug)] // so we can inspect the state in a minute
enum UsState {
    Alabama,
    Alaska,
    // --snip--
}

enum Coin {
    Penny,
    Nickel,
    Dime,
    Quarter(UsState),
}

fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 {
    match coin {
        Coin::Penny => 1,
        Coin::Nickel => 5,
        Coin::Dime => 10,
        Coin::Quarter(state) => {
            println!("State quarter from {state:?}!");
            25
        }
    }
}

When we compare that value with each of the match arms, none of them match until we reach Coin::Quarter(state)

Matching with Option<T>

Handling the Option enum using match:

fn plus_one(x: Option<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
        match x {
            None => None,
            Some(i) => Some(i + 1),
        }
    }

    let five = Some(5);
    let six = plus_one(five);
    let none = plus_one(None);

If the Option contains a value (Some(i)), we perform an operation on it. If it’s None, we return None.

Matches Are Exhaustive

The arms’ patterns must cover all possibilities. Consider this version of our plus_one function:

    fn plus_one(x: Option<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
        match x {
            Some(i) => Some(i + 1),
        }
    }
    

We didn’t handle the None case, so this code will cause a bug.

Catch-All Patterns and _ Placeholder

The _ pattern can be used for values that we don’t care about:

    let dice_roll = 9;
    match dice_roll {
        3 => add_fancy_hat(),
        7 => remove_fancy_hat(),
        other => move_player(other),
    }

    fn add_fancy_hat() {}
    fn remove_fancy_hat() {}
    fn move_player(num_spaces: u8) {}

Note that we have to put the catch-all (other) arm last because the patterns are evaluated in order

    let dice_roll = 9;
    match dice_roll {
        3 => add_fancy_hat(),
        7 => remove_fancy_hat(),
        _ => reroll(),
    }

    fn add_fancy_hat() {}
    fn remove_fancy_hat() {}
    fn reroll() {}

The _ matches any value but doesn’t bind it to a variable.

How Matches Interact with Ownership

When matching on enums with non-copyable types like String, ownership is transferred carefully.

fn main() {
let opt: Option<String> = Some(String::from("Hello world"));

match opt {
    Some(_) => println!("Some!"),
    None => println!("None!")
};

println!("{:?}", opt);
}

If we replace Some(_) with a variable name, like Some(s), then the program will NOT compile:

fn main() {
let opt: Option<String> = 
    Some(String::from("Hello world"));

match opt {
    // _ became s
    Some(s) => println!("Some: {}", s),
    None => println!("None!")
};

println!("{:?}", opt); // opt loses read and own permission
}

Using References in match

If we want to avoid moving the data, we can match on a reference:

fn main() {
let opt: Option<String> = Some(String::from("Hello world"));

// opt became &opt
match &opt {
    Some(s) => println!("Some: {}", s),
    None => println!("None!")
};

println!("{:?}", opt);  // This works because `opt` is borrowed.
} 

Concise Control Flow with if let

if let provides a more concise way to handle enum variants in a control flow:

From this:

    let config_max = Some(3u8);
    match config_max {
        Some(max) => println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}"),
        _ => (),
    }

To this:

let config_max = Some(3u8);

if let Some(max) = config_max {
    println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}");
}

if let is less verbose than match but loses exhaustive checking.

Summary

• Enums to define types that can be one of several possible variants.
• Pattern matching allos us to destructure and match on specific patterns.
• The Option enum is used to safely handle cases where a value might be present or absent.